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always carry naloxone for emergencies, and encourage family and friends to learn how to use take home naloxone – a medicine that can reverse the effects of an opioid overdose (more information on naloxone is provided below) · avoid mixing drugs (polydrug use) – mixing opioids with depressant drugs such as alcohol or benzodiazepines can greatly increase the risk of overdose Opium contains two main groups of alkaloids. Phenanthrenes such as morphine, codeine, and thebaine are the main psychoactive constituents. [150] Isoquinolines such as papaverine and noscapine have no significant central nervous system effects. Morphine is the most prevalent and important alkaloid in opium, consisting of 10–16 percent of the total, and is responsible for most of its harmful effects such as lung edema, respiratory difficulties, coma, or cardiac or respiratory collapse. Morphine binds to and activates mu opioid receptors in the brain, spinal cord, stomach and intestine. Regular use can lead to drug tolerance or physical dependence. Chronic opium addicts in 1906 China [48] consumed an average of eight grams of opium daily; opium addicts in modern Iran [151] are thought to consume about the same. Opium was prohibited in many countries during the early 20th century, leading to the modern pattern of opium production as a precursor for illegal recreational drugs or tightly regulated, highly taxed, legal prescription drugs. In 1980, 2,000 tons of opium supplied all legal and illegal uses. [20] Worldwide production in 2006 was 6610 tonnes [107]—about one-fifth the level of production in 1906; since then, opium production has fallen. [ citation needed] Dioscorides,Introduction to The Herbal of Dioscorides the Greek Poppy crop from the Malwa in India (probably Papaver somniferum var. album [1])
Historical accounts suggest that opium first arrived in China during the Tang dynasty (618–907) as part of the merchandise of Arab traders. [10] Later on, Song Dynasty (960–1279) poet and pharmacologist Su Dongpo recorded the use of opium as a medicinal herb: " Daoists often persuade you to drink the jisu water, but even a child can prepare the yingsu [A] soup." [11] Lowes, Peter D. (1966). The Genesis of International Narcotics Control. Librairie Droz. ISBN 978-2-600-04030-3. Ms Louise Foxcroft (June 28, 2013). The Making of Addiction: The 'Use and Abuse' of Opium in Nineteenth-Century Britain. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp.66–. ISBN 978-1-4094-7984-0.
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a b c d e f g Dikotter, Frank (2004). Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China. Hurst. p.3. ISBN 978-0226149059. a b Commissioner Jesse B. Cook (June 1931). "San Francisco's Old Chinatown". San Francisco Police and Peace Officers' Journal . Retrieved September 22, 2007. Drug Addiction Research and the Health of Women – pg. 33–52" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 22, 2008 . Retrieved March 21, 2010. Lomax, Elizabeth (1973). "The Uses and Abuses Of Opiates In Nineteenth-Century England". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 47 (2): 167–176. ISSN 0007-5140. JSTOR 44447528. PMID 4584236 . Retrieved May 31, 2022.
Kiple 2007, p.177: "England going to war for the principle of free trade -- in this case the right to sell opium -- and on behalf of "free tradres" determined to see China "opened" to the West.". Withdrawal symptoms usually start six to 24 hours after the last dose and can last around seven to ten days. These symptoms are described as flu-like, and can include: Layton, Thomas N. (1997). The Voyage of the 'Frolic': New England Merchants and the Opium Trade. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804729093. Professor Arthur C. Gibson. "The Pernicious Opium Poppy". University of California, Los Angeles. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013 . Retrieved February 22, 2014. In June 2007, the council launched a "Poppy for Medicines" project that provides a technical blueprint for the implementation of an integrated control system within Afghan village-based poppy for medicine projects: the idea promotes the economic diversification by redirecting proceeds from the legal cultivation of poppy and production of poppy-based medicines. [140] There has been criticism of the Senlis report findings by Macfarlan Smith, who argue that though they produce morphine in Europe, they were never asked to contribute to the report. [141] Cultivation in the UK [ edit ]a b Hevia, James Louis (2003). "Opium, Empire, and Modern History" (PDF). China Review International. 10 (2): 307–326. doi: 10.1353/cri.2004.0076. ISSN 1527-9367. S2CID 143635262. Brook, Timothy; Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi (2000). Opium Regimes: China, Britain, and Japan, 1839–1952. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520222366. Sawynok J (January 1986). "The therapeutic use of heroin: a review of the pharmacological literature". Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 64 (1): 1–6. doi: 10.1139/y86-001. PMID 2420426. a b c d e Alfred W. McCoy. "Opium History, 1858 to 1940". Archived from the original on April 4, 2007 . Retrieved May 4, 2007.
In 2021, the International Agency for Research on Cancer concluded that opium is a Group 1 (sufficient evidence) human carcinogen, causing cancers of the larynx, lung, and urinary bladder. [154] Slang terms [ edit ] Santella, Thomas M.; Triggle, D. J. (2009). Opium. Facts On File, Incorporated. p.8. ISBN 9781438102139.
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The treaties with the British soon led to similar arrangements with the United States and France. These later became known as the Unequal Treaties, while the Opium Wars, according to Chinese historians, represented the start of China's " Century of humiliation". Beginning in 1915, Chinese nationalist groups came to describe the period of military losses and Unequal Treaties as the "Century of National Humiliation", later defined to end with the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. [78] Xiao, Shuiyuan; Yang, Mei; Zhou, Liang; Hao, Wei (February 2015). "Transition of China's drug policy: problems in practice". Addiction. 110 (2): 193–4. doi: 10.1111/add.12689. PMID 25602038.
Peter Ward Fay (9 November 2000). The Opium War, 1840–1842: Barbarians in the Celestial Empire in the Early Part of the Nineteenth Century and the War by which They Forced Her Gates Ajar. University of North Carolina Press. pp.290–. ISBN 978-0-8078-6136-3. Bradley, James (2009). The Imperial Cruise: a secret history of empire and war. Little, Brown and Company. pp. 274–275. ISBN 978-0-316-00895-2. a b Rewriting history, A response to the 2008 World Drug Report, Transnational Institute, June 2008 Marc Andre Matten, ed. (December 9, 2011). Places of Memory in Modern China: History, Politics, and Identity. BRILL. p.271. ISBN 978-90-04-21901-4. Both analgesia and drug addiction are functions of the mu opioid receptor, the class of opioid receptor first identified as responsive to morphine. Tolerance is associated with the superactivation of the receptor, which may be affected by the degree of endocytosis caused by the opioid administered, and leads to a superactivation of cyclic AMP signaling. [152] Long-term use of morphine in palliative care and the management of chronic pain always entails a risk that the patient develops tolerance or physical dependence. There are many kinds of rehabilitation treatment, including pharmacologically based treatments with naltrexone, methadone, or ibogaine. [153]It is mainly used to treat masculinity, strengthen sperm, and regain vigour. It enhances the art of alchemists, sex and court ladies. Frequent use helps to cure the chronic diarrhea that causes the loss of energy ... Its price equals that of gold. [11] Ms Louise Foxcroft (28 June 2013). The Making of Addiction: The 'Use and Abuse' of Opium in Nineteenth-Century Britain. Ashgate Publishing. pp.66–. ISBN 978-1-4094-7984-0. The Persian physician Abū ‘Alī al-Husayn ibn Sina ("Avicenna") described opium as the most powerful of the stupefacients, in comparison to mandrake and other highly effective herbs, in The Canon of Medicine. The text lists medicinal effects of opium, such as analgesia, hypnosis, antitussive effects, gastrointestinal effects, cognitive effects, respiratory depression, neuromuscular disturbances, and sexual dysfunction. It also refers to opium's potential as a poison. Avicenna describes several methods of delivery and recommendations for doses of the drug. [24] This classic text was translated into Latin in 1175 and later into many other languages and remained authoritative until the 19th century. [25] Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu used opium in the 14th-century Ottoman Empire to treat migraine headaches, sciatica, and other painful ailments. [26] Reintroduction to Western medicine [ edit ] Latin translation of Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, 1483 Use of opium as a cure-all was reflected in the formulation of mithridatium described in the 1728 Chambers Cyclopedia, which included true opium in the mixture.
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