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Servillo, Luigi; Giovane, Alfonso; Balestrieri, Maria Luisa; Casale, Rosario; Castaldo, Domenico (2013-05-17). "Citrus genus plants contain N-methylated tryptamine derivatives and their 5-hydroxylated forms". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 61 (21): 5156–5162. doi: 10.1021/jf401448q. ISSN 1520-5118. PMID 23682903.
Coumarins and furanocoumarins have been reported to exert antimicrobial activity against various gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria as well as certain fungi and yeasts [ 35]. A recent study reported the antimicrobial properties of BP and some other related compounds such as psoralen, 7-hydroxycoumarin, and 7-methoxycoumarin isolated from the crude extract of Treculia obovoidea N.E.Br. against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, and three Candida species. Most of the tested components demonstrated selective antimicrobial action, thereby making them potential candidates in the management of bacterial and fungal diseases [ 36]. Among the different compounds, the three-cycle coumarins such as BP have more pronounced inhibitory effects than the two-cycle coumarins. The combined anti-inflammatory and proresolution activities suggest that BP may be particularly valuable for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases [ 7]. In addition, it has also been evidenced to act as an analgesic (Teye [ 8]) (Teye Azietaku, 2016 #50) and anticoagulant [ 9] and has hepatoprotective properties [ 10] and anticonvulsant effects [ 11]. Moreover, various studies revealed that BP has inhibitory effects on 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX), cyclooxygenase (COX), and topoisomerase 1 (Teye [ 8, 12]). Girard J, Unkovic J, Delahayes J, Lafille C (1979). "Phototoxicity of Bergamot oil. Comparison between humans and guinea pigs". Dermatologica (in French). 158 (4): 229–43. doi: 10.1159/000250763. PMID 428611.A 2011 study published in Phytotherapy Research found that bergamot essential oil may help alleviate feelings of anxiety and stress at a biochemical level. Workplace stress has attracted much attention recently [ 1]. In Taiwan, working stress is increasing among elementary school teachers, as a result of students declining, competition between schools, and education reform. Local studies have indicated that there is higher job stress and interpersonal stress in male elementary teachers than in female teachers. Young teachers feel increased stress on income and time scheduling; while senior teachers feel increased stress on colleague relationships [ 2]. Thus, appropriate stress coping methods are also highly desirable. Known for its low prices and dupe products, Aldi named the candle after the fragrances in it: Oud and Bergamot. One study shows that taking bergamot supplements may help people with schizophrenia think more clearly. People in the study had better results on several cognitive tests after taking bergamot. Further research is needed. Health Risks of Bergamot
You should always apply topical bergamot oil with a carrier oil, as using it at full strength could irritate skin and cause allergic reactions. Notable differences in the bioavailability of BP were observed after administration of 1.2 mg/kg (unmicronized, under nonfasted condition) to the same subjects at different times during the day. Interestingly, the morning and afternoon administrations induced much lower C max and AUC than the evening administrations (175 ng/L and 3282 ng/L·h, respectively). These values, particularly the AUC, are also much higher compared to those reported in other studies (Table 1), indicating that chronobiological variations might have a great impact on BP bioavailability and should be considered in treatment regimens [ 22]. BP is a potent antioxidant, with the capability of suppressing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and also exerts remarkable anti-inflammatory functions [ 29]. A few studies have shown that BP inhibited the recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages suppressing the ROS generation and reducing the production of proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) α and interleukin- (IL-) 6, in LPS-stimulated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) [ 29– 31]. In another study, the anti-inflammatory effects of BP were investigated in a rat model of acetic acid-induced colitis [ 34]. Oral administration of BP (3, 10, and 30 mg/kg) normalized colon weight-to-length and significantly reduced tissue damage and the number of degranulated mast cells. 4.2. Antimicrobial, Antifungal, and Antiviral A 2021 study notes that combiningIt is well established that diet plays a crucial role in gastric carcinogenesis and Citrus intake has been associated with a lower risk of stomach cancer [ 70, 71]. Out of approximately 870,000 noncardia gastric cancer cases, 74.7% have been attributed to H. pylori infection [ 72]. Therefore, a relevant number of studies have focused on the potential of Citrus fruits and their derivatives against H. pylori both in vitro and in vivo. Board, Niir (2011). "Oil of Bergamot." The Complete Technology Book of Essential Oils (Aromatic Chemicals). p. 75. ISBN 978-81-7833-066-2.
A recent study investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of BP in different mouse models of inflammation [ 4]. Inflammation induced by intraplantar administration of formalin or carrageenan and intraperitoneal administration of acetic acid was significantly reversed by BP (10 mg/kg i.p.). BP also reduced the levels of circulating TNF- α and IL-6 and the expression of poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP), COX-2, and inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) in the spinal cord. If you’ve ever had Earl Grey tea, then you’ve tasted the flavor of bergamot. It comes from the Citrus bergamia plant, a fruit tree believed to be native to the Mediterranean region.In a recent study, the anti-inflammatory effects of BP isolated from the roots of Heracleum nepalense D. Don were investigated in PBMCs obtained from healthy subjects stimulated by LPS [ 30]. The treatment with BP induced a dose-dependent decline in the release of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF- α and IL-6 by PBMCs. In recent work, BP was isolated from Pleurospermum candollei (DC.) Benth. Ex C. B. Clark. at doses of 100 μM evidenced a significant inhibition of NO production in RAW264.7 cells stimulated with LPS [ 32]. Some studies have highlighted the usefulness of bergamot essence as an aromatherapeutic agent. In a study, 109 preoperative patients were exposed to bergamot essential oil or control [ 73]. The patients from the bergamot group evidenced lower anxiety measured with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Pasyar et al. [ 74] observed that aromatherapy with 3% bergamot orange essence has benefits in patients before a laparoscopic cholecystectomy operation. The patients presented a decrease in preoperative anxiety and salivary alpha-amylase level, as a biomarker of stress. Due to these positive effects, it is suggested that further studies on the effects of bergamot orange essence be conducted before surgery, during the induction of anaesthesia, and after the procedure [ 74]. Finally, it is interesting to note that although there is evidence of the antitumor capacity of BP in vitro studies and animal models, there are no clinical trials to support these results in humans. 6. Limitations One of the characteristics that have attracted researchers is the phototoxicity of several furanocoumarins including BP when used in combination with UVA radiation. After the initial hour, the amber and musk notes emerge more and balance the fragrance. It still has that bright, citrusy behavior, but I get more intense undertones of floral notes and musky herb-based spice. At times, it can feel quite powdery and slightly soapy. The amber is akin to ambergris, more salty that sweet. In another paper, a phototoxic reaction was observed after photo-addition of BP to DNA which was followed by enhanced human skin pigmentation that safeguards the epidermal cell DNA against further exposure to UV light [ 35] (Forlot, 2012 #23). Another study reported the phototoxic effects after exposure of albino guinea pig skin to furocoumarins, namely, oxypeucedanin and BP, present in lemon oil and UV irradiation (320-400 nm) [ 42]. The phototoxic potency of oxypeucedanin was merely one-quarter of that of BP.
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