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a b Fintel M, Langer GA, Duenas C (November 1984). "Effects of low sodium perfusion on cardiac caffeine sensitivity and calcium uptake". Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology. 16 (11): 1037–1045. doi: 10.1016/s0022-2828(84)80016-4. PMID 6520875. Gibbons CH, Schmidt P, Biaggioni I, Frazier-Mills C, Freeman R, Isaacson S, Karabin B, Kuritzky L, Lew M, Low P, Mehdirad A, Raj SR, Vernino S, Kaufmann H (August 2017). "The recommendations of a consensus panel for the screening, diagnosis, and treatment of neurogenic orthostatic hypotension and associated supine hypertension". J. Neurol. 264 (8): 1567–1582. doi: 10.1007/s00415-016-8375-x. PMC 5533816. PMID 28050656. Commercially prepared coffee- flavoured milk beverages are popular in Australia. [236] Examples include Oak's Ice Coffee and Farmers Union Iced Coffee. The amount of caffeine in these beverages can vary widely. Caffeine concentrations can differ significantly from the manufacturer's claims. [226] Mathew OP (May 2011). "Apnea of prematurity: pathogenesis and management strategies". Journal of Perinatology. 31 (5): 302–10. doi: 10.1038/jp.2010.126. PMID 21127467. Rodopoulos N, Wisén O, Norman A (May 1995). "Caffeine metabolism in patients with chronic liver disease". Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation. 55 (3): 229–42. doi: 10.3109/00365519509089618. PMID 7638557.
Li M, Wang M, Guo W, Wang J, Sun X (March 2011). "The effect of caffeine on intraocular pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 249 (3): 435–42. doi: 10.1007/s00417-010-1455-1. PMID 20706731. S2CID 668498. Main article: Decaffeination Fibrous crystals of purified caffeine. Dark-field microscopy image, about 7mm × 11mm. Lassi ZS, Imam AM, Dean SV, Bhutta ZA (September 2014). "Preconception care: caffeine, smoking, alcohol, drugs and other environmental chemical/radiation exposure". Reproductive Health. 11 (Suppl 3): S6. doi: 10.1186/1742-4755-11-S3-S6. PMC 4196566. PMID 25415846.
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Caffeine also causes the release of dopamine in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens core (a substructure within the ventral striatum), but not the nucleus accumbens shell, by antagonizing A 1 receptors in the axon terminal of dopamine neurons and A 1– A 2A heterodimers (a receptor complex composed of 1 adenosine A 1 receptor and 1 adenosine A 2A receptor) in the axon terminal of glutamate neurons. [169] [164] During chronic caffeine use, caffeine-induced dopamine release within the nucleus accumbens core is markedly reduced due to drug tolerance. [169] [164] Enzyme targets a b Wikoff D, Welsh BT, Henderson R, Brorby GP, Britt J, Myers E, etal. (November 2017). "Systematic review of the potential adverse effects of caffeine consumption in healthy adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children". Food and Chemical Toxicology (Systematic review). 109 (Pt 1): 585–648. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.04.002. PMID 28438661. Castellanos FX, Rapoport JL (September 2002). "Effects of caffeine on development and behavior in infancy and childhood: a review of the published literature". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 40 (9): 1235–1242. doi: 10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00097-2. PMID 12204387. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020 . Retrieved 2 December 2019.
a b Temple JL (January 2019). "Review: Trends, Safety, and Recommendations for Caffeine Use in Children and Adolescents". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Review). 58 (1): 36–45. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2018.06.030. PMID 30577937. Carreon CC, Parsh B (April 2019). "How to recognize caffeine overdose". Nursing (Clinical tutorial). 49 (4): 52–55. doi: 10.1097/01.NURSE.0000553278.11096.86. PMID 30893206. S2CID 84842436. Winston AP (2005). "Neuropsychiatric effects of caffeine". Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 11 (6): 432–439. doi: 10.1192/apt.11.6.432. Chen LW, Wu Y, Neelakantan N, Chong MF, Pan A, van Dam RM (May 2016). "Maternal caffeine intake during pregnancy and risk of pregnancy loss: a categorical and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies". Public Health Nutrition. 19 (7): 1233–44. doi: 10.1017/S1368980015002463. PMC 10271029. PMID 26329421. Caffeine is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 oxidase enzyme system, in particular, by the CYP1A2 isozyme, into three dimethyl xanthines, [188] each of which has its own effects on the body:Caffeine, noun (feminine). Crystallizable substance discovered in coffee in 1821 by Mr. Robiquet. During the same period– while they were searching for quinine in coffee because coffee is considered by several doctors to be a medicine that reduces fevers and because coffee belongs to the same family as the cinchona [quinine] tree– on their part, Messrs. Pelletier and Caventou obtained caffeine; but because their research had a different goal and because their research had not been finished, they left priority on this subject to Mr. Robiquet. We do not know why Mr. Robiquet has not published the analysis of coffee which he read to the Pharmacy Society. Its publication would have allowed us to make caffeine better known and give us accurate ideas of coffee's composition... In healthy children, moderate caffeine intake under 400mg produces effects that are "modest and typically innocuous". [74] [75] As early as six months old, infants can metabolize caffeine at the same rate as that of adults. [76] Higher doses of caffeine (>400mg) can cause physiological, psychological and behavioral harm, particularly for children with psychiatric or cardiac conditions. [74] There is no evidence that coffee stunts a child's growth. [77] The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that caffeine consumption is not appropriate for children and adolescents and should be avoided. [78] This recommendation is based on a clinical report released by American Academy of Pediatrics in 2011 with a review of 45 publications from 1994 to 2011 and includes inputs from various stakeholders (Pediatricians, Committee on nutrition, Canadian Pediatric Society, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, Sports Medicine & Fitness committee, National Federations of High School Associations). [78] For children age 12 and under, Health Canada recommends a maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 2.5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. Based on average body weights of children, this translates to the following age-based intake limits: [72] Age range Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, with people preferring placebo over caffeine in a study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph. [114] Some state that research does not provide support for an underlying biochemical mechanism for caffeine addiction. [2] [115] [116] [117] Other research states it can affect the reward system. [118] Trimethyluric acid is a minor caffeine metabolite. [8] 7-Methylxanthine is also a metabolite of caffeine. [189] [190] Each of the above metabolites is further metabolized and then excreted in the urine. Caffeine can accumulate in individuals with severe liver disease, increasing its half-life. [191] Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid, and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is found in the seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to Africa, East Asia and South America, [18] and helps to protect them against herbivores and from competition by preventing the germination of nearby seeds, [19] as well as encouraging consumption by select animals such as honey bees. [20] The best-known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, the seed of the Coffea plant. People may drink beverages containing caffeine to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve cognitive performance. To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, a process called infusion. Caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, and cola, are consumed globally in high volumes. In 2020, almost 10 million tonnes of coffee beans were consumed globally. [21] Caffeine is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. [22] [23] Unlike most other psychoactive substances, caffeine remains largely unregulated and legal in nearly all parts of the world. Caffeine is also an outlier as its use is seen as socially acceptable in most cultures and even encouraged in others.
Caffeine improves muscular strength and power, [66] and may enhance muscular endurance. [67] Caffeine also enhances performance on anaerobic tests. [68] Caffeine consumption before constant load exercise is associated with reduced perceived exertion. While this effect is not present during exercise-to-exhaustion exercise, performance is significantly enhanced. This is congruent with caffeine reducing perceived exertion, because exercise-to-exhaustion should end at the same point of fatigue. [69] Caffeine also improves power output and reduces time to completion in aerobic time trials, [70] an effect positively (but not exclusively) associated with longer duration exercise. [71] Specific populations Adults
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Temple JL (January 2019). "Review: Trends, Safety, and Recommendations for Caffeine Use in Children and Adolescents". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 58 (1): 36–45. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2018.06.030. PMID 30577937. S2CID 58539710. Chocolate derived from cocoa beans contains a small amount of caffeine. The weak stimulant effect of chocolate may be due to a combination of theobromine and theophylline, as well as caffeine. [237] A typical 28-gram serving of a milk chocolate bar has about as much caffeine as a cup of decaffeinated coffee. By weight, dark chocolate has one to two times the amount of caffeine as coffee: 80–160mg per 100g. Higher percentages of cocoa such as 90% amount to 200mg per 100g approximately and thus, a 100-gram 85% cocoa chocolate bar contains about 195mg caffeine. [221] Tablets No-Doz 100mg caffeine tablets Grgic J, Trexler ET, Lazinica B, Pedisic Z (2018). "Effects of caffeine intake on muscle strength and power: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 15: 11. doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0216-0. PMC 5839013. PMID 29527137. Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and slightly higher levels of theophylline than coffee. Preparation and many other factors have a significant impact on tea, and color is a very poor indicator of caffeine content. Teas like the pale Japanese green tea, gyokuro, for example, contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like lapsang souchong, which has very little. [231] Soft drinks and energy drinks
Caffeine in coffee and other caffeinated drinks can affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid secretion. [86] [87] [88] In postmenopausal women, high caffeine consumption can accelerate bone loss. [89] [90] Birth control pills can extend the half-life of caffeine, requiring greater attention to caffeine consumption. [158] Medications Desk reference to the diagnostic criteria from DSM-5. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. 2013. ISBN 978-0-89042-556-5. OCLC 825047464. {{ cite book}}: |work= ignored ( help) Since this observation was first published, caffeine addiction has been added as an official diagnosis in ICDM9. This decision is disputed by many and is not supported by any convincing body of experimental evidence.... All of these observations strongly suggest that caffeine does not act on the dopaminergic structures related to addiction, nor does it improve performance by alleviating any symptoms of withdrawala b "Caffeine (Systemic)". MedlinePlus. 25 May 2000. Archived from the original on 23 February 2007 . Retrieved 3 August 2009. a b Introduction to Pharmacology (thirded.). Abingdon: CRC Press. 2007. pp.222–223. ISBN 978-1-4200-4742-4. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023 . Retrieved 25 August 2017. a b c d "Caffeine in Food". Health Canada. 6 February 2012. Archived from the original on 10 August 2020 . Retrieved 24 August 2020. Decaffeinated" coffees do in fact contain caffeine in many cases– some commercially available decaffeinated coffee products contain considerable levels. One study found that decaffeinated coffee contained 10mg of caffeine per cup, compared to approximately 85mg of caffeine per cup for regular coffee. [208] Detection in body fluids
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